Abstract: The Multiple Streams Framework (MSF), proposed by John Kingdon in 1984, is now one of the most well-established theories for public policy analysis, having influenced numerous works over the past decades. This chapter aims to investigate how the MSF has been incorporated into public policy analyses in Latin America. To achieve this, the study employed an empirical strategy of searching for, identifying, and subsequently analyzing academic articles that utilized the Multiple Streams model in Mexico, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Peru, and Brazil. As a result, we observed a low incidence of works based on the MSF. Among these studies, most sought to investigate rapid change processes, generally aiming to explain the inclusion of innovative issues in the agenda and the creation of new policies. The predominant methodological strategy is the case study, with health and environmental policies being the most studied through the MSF. These findings help us identify the main contributions, limitations, and challenges of MSF for studies conducted in the region.

Keywords: Multiple Streams Framework (MSF); Public Policy Analysis; Policy studies; Policy theory; Latin America 

Abstract: Do institutions matter for public policy and, if so, how? One of the most popular frameworks for public policy and public administration studies is the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework. Originally developed by Elinor Ostrom and her colleagues at the Ostrom Workshop on Policy Analysis and Political Theory, IAD is a framework that facilitates the analysis of collective action problems and actor relations through the study of rules and norms. Interactions among actors occur in action scenarios affected by exogenous variables. In this chapter, we trace the historical development of IAD as a framework and provide an overview of how IAD can be used for institutional analysis. We also review the literature on applications of IAD. Broadly speaking, we focus on the application of IAD to specific Latin American cases, as well as empirical applications and theoretical developments by Latin American scholars.

Keywords: Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) Framework; Public Policy theory; Collective Action Problems; Rules and Norms in Policy Analysis; Empirical Application; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter examines the evolution and application of the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) in Latin American policy processes. It reviews scholarly literature to trace the ACF's development and adaptation beyond its traditional North American and European contexts, emphasizing its relevance across diverse policy sectors. The chapter addresses critiques of the ACF's pluralist assumptions and its adaptability to international settings, particularly in developing countries. Methodological considerations, including the importance of transparent methodologies and alternative explanations, are discussed. The chapter highlights a growing trend in ACF applications in Latin America, particularly in areas like democratization, social exclusion, and state capacity, expanding the framework's traditional scope. It calls for deeper engagement with other theoretical traditions and emphasizes the impact of methodological choices in ACF research, offering valuable insights for understanding policy dynamics in the region.

Keywords: Public policy; advocacy coalitions; policy subsystems; policy process; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter explores the Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET) as an innovative framework for studying policy change, with a focus in Latin America. PET offers a quantitative and comparative perspective on policy dynamics.. The Comparative Agendas Project (CAP) plays a crucial role in extending PET's application globally by developing datasets covering various political activities and allowing comparisons across countries. PET research within CAP encompasses agenda-setting, political representation, media-political agenda interaction, party competition, legislative activities, and social media dynamics. Case studies from Brazil and Colombia illustrate PET's utility in understanding presidential and legislative agendas, judicial oversight, and budgetary dynamics. Despite its successes, challenges such as the role of informal institutions remain, requiring interdisciplinary dialogue to enrich PET's theoretical framework and empirical analyses in dynamic political contexts. Overall, this chapter highlights the potential of PET research in Latin America to deepen our understanding of policymaking dynamics and calls for further exploration in this region.

Keywords:  Punctuated Equilibrium Theory (PET); Policy Change; Comparative Agendas Project; Agenda-Setting; Political Dynamics; Latin America

Abstract: This paper examines the development of the argumentative turn in policy analysis in Latin America. It offers a theoretical overview and presents data on the adoption of this approach, focusing on publication types and trends since the 1990s. The study identifies seven categories of argumentative policy research in the region, including theoretical reviews, methodological applications, and both prescriptive and descriptive studies. The findings indicate a significant increase in argumentative policy analysis after 2014, particularly in peer-reviewed articles and doctoral dissertations. Brazil leads the region, accounting for nearly two-thirds (64.8%) of the publications. Descriptive research dominates the field, comprising 69.3% of the studies, compared to prescriptive policy analysis and planning.

Keywords: argumentative turn; policy analysis; theoretical development; methodological applications; prescriptive and descriptive policy research; Latin America

Abstract: The emergence of Critical Policy Studies as a dissenting school within the policy field is now making its way into Latin America. Despite the apparent delay, this movement represents a powerful and creative shift that has the potential to redefine key aspects of Critical Policy Studies. It has developed outside the traditional framework of the dominant policy perspectives in Latin America, offering a fresh and influential outlook. This perspective draws from the European critical theory tradition, particularly from the second generation, and the Latin American intellectual tradition, particularly from its third generation. This chapter explores these developments and focuses on recent advancements in critical policy studies in Latin America, including feminist studies, decolonial studies, and social management studies.

Keywords: critical policy studies; decoloniality; feminism; public policy; social management; Latin America

Abstract: This chapter sought to answer the following research question: How did narrative approaches to public policy evolve in Latin America: The cases of Argentina, Brazil and Mexico from 1990 to 2022. For this purpose, a review of the theoretical origins of the different approaches was made and then 34 academic articles cited 496 times in scientific publications that were made in three countries using narrative methodologies were analyzed. It is observed that there is an incipient but growing development and use of narratives in public policy analysis in the region.

Keywords: Narrative Approach; public policy narratives; policy process; public policy theory; policy argumentation; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter explores the growing field of policy transfer, diffusion, and circulation, focusing on Latin America. Initially, Latin American countries were primarily importers of policies from the Global North, influenced by colonial legacies and 20th-century international relations. However, recent decades have seen the region producing and exporting significant policy innovations globally. Examples include Conditional Cash Transfer programs (like Oportunidades and Bolsa Família), the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems in Curitiba and Bogotá, and Participatory Budgeting from Porto Alegre. The chapter examines why these Latin American policies have been widely diffused, the agents involved, and the forces driving these processes. It also compares Latin American policy diffusion dynamics with those in other regions, offering a comprehensive overview through various examples in urban and national social policies.

Keywords: policy transfer; policy diffusion; international relations; policy innovations;public policies; Latin America

Abstract:This chapter explores a broader understanding of power and politics beyond traditional government institutions, focusing on how they support and shape public policies. It aims to analyze how power and politics manifest in Latin American countries, considering the unique changes in state and society. The chapter seeks to understand the dynamics and operators of this power-politics relationship and proposes using these insights as a theoretical foundation for rethinking models of political and social order, as well as public policy formation and change. Concepts like movement, irreversibility, and instability are examined to view government as a dissipative structure that achieves compliance, adhesion, and order.

Keywords: political theory; government; public policies; state capacities evolutionary approach; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter proposes a theoretical hybridization between the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) and the "Temporalities of the Future" approach by the International Graduate School (CIG). This hybrid framework aims to explore how actors' anticipations and aspirations in Latin America interact with global dynamics, leading to a more comprehensive cognitive theory of policy-making influenced by the concept of "glocalities" coined by Arturo Escobar. The approach suggests that future temporalities drive public policy change as actors with shared temporal beliefs work together to integrate these future visions into public policy. This framework is particularly relevant for Latin America's glocal public policies, where local future temporalities confront global influences. The chapter emphasizes the importance of incorporating the future temporalities of indigenous peoples and local communities in policy processes. However, this hybrid approach is still in its early stages and requires further interdisciplinary case studies.

Keywords: temporalities of the future; Advocacy Coalition Framework; glocal public policies; cultural heterogeneity; Latin America 

Abstract: The development of policy studies in Latin America began in the late 1980s in the context of neoliberal globalization. It was disseminated in academia through the main manuals, concepts and theories representative of the field as developed in the United States and Western Europe. After a largely uncritical reception, some authors propose revising the theoretical models for their adaptation and contextualization, while others consider the need to build their own theories based on the Latin American reality. This chapter first reviews the academic debate on the theories used and their relevance, and then presents Latin American contributions that point towards a revision or theoretical renewal for the study of public policies. 

Keywords: public policy studies; modernization; development; public policy approaches; policy analysis; Latin America

Abstract: This chapter examines the evolution of the rationalist approach to public policy design in Latin America, which relies on facts, analysis, and systematic procedures to develop policy recommendations. It begins by outlining key elements of this approach, such as planning, cost-benefit analysis, and other methods of policy appraisal. The chapter then analyzes three cases: the creation of Brazil's Unified Health System in 1989, the use of a randomized trial to assess Mexico's Seguro Popular program in 2005, and reforms to Colombia's General System of Social Security in Health up to 2015. The analysis reveals that the rationalist approach is still rarely used in the region, even in technical areas like health, and is often complemented by the argumentative approach in the most successful and enduring reforms.

Keywords: public policy analysis; evidence-based policy; health policy; rationalist approach; argumentative approach; Latin America 

Abstract: The democracies in Latin America are recent and face significant challenges, such as civilian control over the Armed Forces, the influence of populist leaders, and the consolidation of democratic transitions. Transparency emerges as crucial to strengthening democratic institutions and promoting government accountability. This chapter analyzes transparency in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico, assessing the advances and challenges in each country. The research focuses on four dimensions: access to information laws, participation and oversight, budget transparency, and response to information requests. Despite observed progress, considerable limitations still exist. All the countries analyzed show low scores in opportunities for budget participation, and only Colombia guarantees total anonymity for information requesters. Mexico is the only country with a central institution for monitoring transparency and resolving conflicts between data protection and the right to information. While there is progress in transparency laws and information disclosure, advancing social participation and effective implementation of these laws is necessary.

Keywords: Transparency; Access to information; Democracy; Latin America; Social participation; Governance 

Abstract: Governments across the globe have progressively adopted newer theories and practices of public policy and public administration that seek to bring citizens closer to their governments, ranging from interactive government to smart city development, and most recently, to co-production and co-creation. The term ‘democratic innovations’ has been established to capture this diversity of forms of citizen participation in public policy. However, this term has so far highlighted citizen participation focused on improving public decision-making. We draw on evidence from Latin America, long acknowledged as a laboratory for democratic innovation, to offer evidence to the limits in such conceptualization. We analyze concrete cases in which citizen participation has led to positive policy outcomes while operating in different moments across the policy cycle, including in agenda setting, policy formulation, policy implementation, and policy evaluation. The region’s variety and diversity in forms of participation highlights that citizens' inputs can be considered at different moments of the policy cycle, enhancing the legitimacy and quality of public policy.

Keywords: citizen participation; community engagement; co-creation; monitoring; strategic planning; community development; Latin America 

Abstract: Subnational development, state capacities and policy implementation: a comparative analysis of Brazil, Chile, and Colombia. Subnational development is usually related to state capacities for public policy implementation. This implies that much of the effects of public policies for development depends on the institutional arrangements and administrative capacities that characterize multilevel and subnational governance. This chapter analyzes three cases in Latin America (Brazil, Chile, and Colombia) to take a closer look at these assumptions, by comparing different decentralization models and their effects on regional and local development. For this, we examine subnational governments' institutional and administrative capacities in these three countries and analyze their relationship with subnational development indicators. The findings underscore the importance of state capacity and subnational public administration for both policy implementation and subnational development.

Keywords: subnational development; state capacities; public policy implementation; multilevel governance; decentralization models 

Abstract: This chapter proposes a Culturally Responsive Evaluation (CRE) approach tailored to the realities of local contexts in Latin America. It introduces "Evaluation from and for Latin America," a perspective that embraces regional epistemologies and methodologies, emerging from the 2022 Latin American and Caribbean Evaluation Conference in Quito, Ecuador. The chapter advocates for a decolonial evaluation framework that addresses inequities and fosters dialogue with diverse cultures and worldviews. Celebrating ReLAC’s 20th anniversary in 2024, it emphasizes the importance of grounding evaluation practices in the region's ancestral cultures to inform present-day practices. The chapter calls for building evaluation practices based on respect, otherness, and the dignity of communities, aiming to create meaningful "horizons of meaning" for the profession.

Keywords: culturally responsive evaluation; evaluation theories; decolonization; interculturality; Evaluation practice; Latin America 

Abstract:This chapter seeks to review the recent transformation in Latin American states towards the adoption of a regulatory profile. The expansion of the regulatory state model in the region has been remarkable. Over the last few decades, this process has led to modifications within state apparatuses and in the dynamics of policy formulation and implementation. The chapter re-examines this process based on a historical overview and the inspection of contemporary trends in a set of Latin American countries. We highlight emerging themes and promising research avenues, ultimately offering both theoretical and empirical contributions to the study of regulation and public policy in Latin America.

Keywords: regulation; post-agencification; public policies; regulatory state; public policy analysis: Latin America 

Abstract:The aim of this chapter is to carry out a comparative analysis of care policies as social policies in six Latin American countries: Mexico, Colombia, Costa Rica, Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. It will identify, through the analysis of six variables, from which types of gender and feminist regimes these care policies are designed. The variables to be analyzed are: (1) Target population; (2) Redistribution; (3) Gender co-responsibility; (4) State co-responsibility; and (5) Market co-responsibility. Through feminist theory and methodology of analysis, as well as public policy analysis, we intend to add to the current conversation and literature recommendations for the design of care systems as social policy, and to move from familiarists and maternalist approaches, to defamiliarizing and gender-transforming approaches that do not reproduce the economic and social logics of inequality in terms of care.

Keywords: care; public policies; de-familiarizing; gender regime; social policy; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter provides an overview of public policy education in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), focusing on six continental countries—Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru—selected for their number of undergraduate programs, and the Dominican Republic, representing the Caribbean. The chapter begins by discussing the varied interpretations of public policy. It then examines the historical and current status of public policy teaching at undergraduate and graduate levels in each country, highlighting the influence of multilateral organizations. The analysis shows that while public policy education and research are growing across the region, the pace and context vary widely due to differing historical and institutional factors. The chapter concludes by suggesting that there is potential for developing a more regionally grounded approach to public policy in LAC.

Keywords: public policy; higher education; undergraduate programs; graduate programs; policy sciences; Latin America 

Abstract: Despite warnings from international human rights organizations about growing inequality in access to information, the media sector has largely escaped regulation, justified by the belief that freedom of expression is incompatible with state intervention. However, in recent decades, several Latin American and Caribbean countries have revisited the debate on media regulation, leading to public policies that place media on the political agenda. State intervention, from economic investment to regulating journalistic practices and access to radio frequencies, influences both the media system and the political landscape. This chapter offers an overview of the public policy debate on communication in Latin America, focusing particularly on Ecuador.

Keywords: public policy; mass media; self-regulation; freedom of expression; right to communication; Latin America 

Abstract: Since the World Bank launched its "war on corruption" in the 1990s, framing it as a "cancer," numerous strategies and public policy frameworks have been promoted for adoption by developing nations. This militaristic narrative, which describes anti-corruption efforts as a battle, has given rise to what is colloquially known as the "anti-corruption industry." Despite these efforts, outcomes have been largely disappointing, particularly in Latin America. Critical theory suggests that these terms are not just rhetorical but serve to legitimize interventions in developing nations' policy frameworks. Corruption is intertwined with deeper societal issues, and anti-corruption policies often oversimplify the problem. Latin American initiatives, such as Mexico's Sistema Nacional Anticorrupción, Guatemala's Comisión contra la Impunidad y la Corrupción, and Honduras's Consejo Nacional Anticorrupción, offer compelling case studies. These initiatives highlight the innovative approaches nations must adopt due to the inadequacies of conventional anti-corruption methods.

Keywords: critical theory; anti-corruption policy; anti-corruption discourse; systemic corruption; political will; Latin America

Abstract: This chapter presents some relevant advances in the open government agenda in Latin America, initiated and promoted by different international organizations, led by the Open Government Partnership (OGP). Such advances are linked to two key issues in the literature: macro processes of policy diffusion on the one hand, and the transformation of new policy designs in several policy areas. This chapter briefly mentions the Open State Colombian strategy and puts in place several important topics to discuss and to analyze as a way to promote the advancement of this agenda, and to recover the use of this interpretative framework associated with open public policies and open policy designs proposed by the authors several years ago.

Keywords: open government; transparency; open public policies; open governance; policy designs; Latin America 

Abstract: In the last decade, innovation laboratories have become popular as spaces for experimenting with innovative ideas, tools and methodologies to respond more effectively to the needs of citizens and solve complex problems in society. In Latin America, Innovation Labs have emerged in the public sector, at the national or local level, in universities, or within civil society organizations, which have managed to position themselves as articulating nodes of the innovation ecosystems. This text analyzes their characteristic elements, results and challenges, presents the panorama of innovation laboratories in Latin America, presents the experience of two cases based on an analysis of their life cycle and maturity level, and, finally, offers a reflection on the importance of establishing collaboration mechanisms between laboratories in the region to promote peer-to-peer learning.

Keywords: innovation; innovation labs; public sector innovation; open innovation; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter explores how artificial intelligence (AI) systems adopted by public bodies in Latin America during the public policy cycle, including agenda-setting, formulation, implementation, and evaluation. By analyzing AI systems from various government sectors in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Peru, the chapter provides insights into their functions, objectives, operations, and intended beneficiaries. It highlights that while Latin American governments are increasingly using diverse AI systems, there is limited public information on key aspects like system development, reported impacts, and funding. This underscores the importance of investigating tools that enhance algorithmic transparency. We also highlight the need to prevent and manage risks associated with implementing AI systems, especially when human rights may be at stake. Additionally, there is a need for further research on adopting AI in Latin America to understand the situations or contexts that favor or limit the adoption and implementation of AI systems.

Keywords: artificial intelligence systems; automated decision-making systems; policy cycle; policymaking; Latin America 

Abstract: This chapter explores the strategic importance of defining public problems in policy-making, focusing on how the definition process shapes solutions. It highlights that problem definition is both political and technical, involving various actors competing to influence decision-makers and the government agenda. The chapter uses the issue of abortion in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua as a case study, examining how these countries' criminalization policies harm women's sexual and reproductive rights. It analyzes the political and technical factors that sustain a criminalizing status quo, despite global trends toward decriminalization. The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of how abortion is addressed in the Central American context, identifying the key players and influences shaping government policies in these countries.

Keywords:  Policy studies; Polity; Public problems; Problem definition; Abortion; Central America 

Abstract: This chapter examines the public policy-making process in Argentina, highlighting the roles of various actors and the institutional factors that shape their actions. Argentina's policy volatility and fragmentation stem more from the policy-making process than from policy content. Key issues include the fragmented state apparatus, the involvement of numerous state and non-state actors with differing goals and resources, and institutional factors like federalism, non-concurrent elections, and a fragmented party system. The chapter details Argentine federalism, electoral rules, and the party system, focusing on the roles of state actors (e.g., presidents, legislators, judges) and non-state actors (e.g., business groups, unions, media). It also analyzes the state's administrative structure to clarify the processes and resources behind policy-making, concluding with reflections on these dynamics.

Keywords: public policies; federalism; party systems; political actors; state apparatus; Argentina

Abstract: This essay critically examines Bolivia's contradictory public policies from economic, political, institutional, sociocultural, and environmental perspectives, spanning the Nation State (1952), Neoliberal State (1985), and Plurinational State (2006). Despite ideological shifts, a hyper-presidential regime and extractivist economy have persisted, resulting in politically fragile and economically unstable centralist governments. The entrenched "rent-seeking" culture, alongside corruption and complicity in illegal activities, has weakened the rule of law, democratization, and subnational autonomy, limiting effective public policy development. The dominance of a monological power structure, which enforces a singular cultural identity, exacerbates the exclusion of Bolivia's diverse socio-cultural fabric, leading to a polarized society with ongoing social conflicts. This context severely hampers the creation of sustainable solutions to Bolivia’s complex issues, including social exclusion, economic underdevelopment, and environmental degradation.

Keywords: public policies; indigenous peoples; extractivism; hyper-presidentialism; autonomy; Bolivia

Abstract: This chapter explores the growing interest in historical studies within public administration, emphasizing their value in understanding the state as a social order, institution, and representation. A key focus is the diachronic analysis of state transformations, particularly in public policy formation and service delivery. The chapter argues that the history of public policies is closely linked with the history of institutions and citizenship. It discusses the theoretical and methodological foundations for developing a history of public policy in Brazil, offering a brief overview of public policy during the early years of the Brazilian state following independence. This historical perspective enriches public administration research by integrating insights from contemporary historiography.

Keywords: Brazilian state; public administration; administrative history; history; public policies; Latin America 

Abstract: Chile does not have its own or original style of public policy. Its "incrementalist" style, strongly institutionalized and with a clear influence of "technocrats" in the public policy process, is fragmenting as new generation politicians interact with more depoliticized voters, with particular demands that expect quick solutions to their problems. The increase in the number of political actors has gone hand in hand with the alternation of governments from left to right and right to left, generating over time, that congressmen are less aligned with their centers of thought while the "street" enters to influence their legislative and policy interests. Rather than strategic, public policies tend to be reactive, adjusting and modifying according to social demands or in response to crises. The absence of a general model is observed that each policy area has a pool of authors and different methodologies being possible to observe two theoretical models of greater use: multiple streams approach and actor-centered institutionalism.

Keywords: public policies; policy style; policy process; multiple streams theory; decision-making process; Chile 

Abstract: This paper focuses on policy formulation, adoption, and implementation in Colombia. We first focus on the horizontal interaction between branches of public power around their most important decisions, and then on the vertical (intergovernmental) level and how responsibilities and competencies in terms of design and implementation are distributed between the central government and subnational governments. Finally, we close with the characteristics, structure, and capacities of Colombian public bureaucracy, which executes the decisions of the two levels mentioned above. This chapter emphasizes the political and administrative dimensions from a descriptive and analytical perspective. It highlights the complexity of the political and administrative policy process in Colombia, the three branches of government and the three levels of government, their interactions and responsibilities in decision-making, the context and the way in which bureaucracies, the distribution of competencies, and intergovernmental arrangements contribute to the implementation process. 

Keywords: Public policy, policy process, colombian politics, decision-making, Colombia 

Abstract: This chapter analyzes public policy formulation processes in Guatemala. It combines attention to the institutional and political aspects of these processes and focuses on elements such as historical background, institutional framework, actors, coalitions and institutions involved in the last government administrations (1985 - 2022). It argues how, in the period under study, the interrelation between the dimensions: Polity, politics and policy of the policy process, with a marked tendency, mainly of the last four governments to guide decisions based on dynamics of the interests of the most influential actors (politics), even to the detriment of the rule of law and the institutionality established from the 1985 Constitution (Polity). In these processes, populist and authoritarian traits stand out in the way public policies are formulated and implemented, jeopardizing the stability of democracy and respect for human rights.

Keywords: Polity; politics; public policy; policy process; policy regime; Guatemala

Abstract: This chapter offers an overview of the evolution of the Office of the Presidency of the Republic of Mexico, pointing out the features of the federal government's policy process, identifying both the continuities and the changes or disruptions that have occurred during this period. In this sense, it has gone from an Office focused on the coordination and control of the government's agenda with a managerialist inspiration, to less formalized and more discretional formats of relations with the president, passing through stages of frank political and functional irrelevance, where it coexists with multiple parallel flows of information and coordination that, on occasions, bypass the Office's coordination mechanisms.

Keywords: public policies; decision making; executive; executive agenda; Staff units; Mexico 

Abstract: This chapter argues that public policies are deeply influenced by the political contexts in which they are developed, challenging the notion of "aseptic" policies. It examines the historical construction of Peruvian public administration, focusing on the past thirty years and how the political context has shaped policy effectiveness. The chapter highlights how ineffective policies, which fail to improve people's lives, perpetuate cyclical "tragedies" in Latin America, leading to social disenchantment and a "democratic recession" characterized by governments elected by a minority of voters. This decline in governance foreshadows complex times for the region, as noted by Latinobarometro (2021). The chapter questions whether governments are failing to create effective policies or if existing political and social controls are inadequate to hold them accountable.

Keywords: public policy; policy effectiveness; civil society; social and political control; democracy; education policy; Perú 

Abstract: Since the neoliberal reform of the 1990s, Costa Rican public policy has featured two important tendencies. First, while reforms advocated for deregulation and privatization, the overall number of state agencies has more than doubled since 1980, leading to growing hybridization of command-and-control and market-oriented policies. Second, while these reforms expanded state obligations, they did not reinforce human and financial resources for implementation, leading to failures in the application of these new obligations. These are contextualized tendencies by using two environmental policy sectors as examples: forestry and water management. The forestry sector showcases the first tendency as an interventionist and top-down governance model was subjected to market reforms, leading to hybridization. Water policy offers an example of an institutional framework that has grown exponentially, leading to new state obligations, without solving incongruencies and power imbalances.

Keywords: Environmental Policy; Neoliberal Reform; Hybridization; Forestry Sector; Water Management; Costa Rica 

Abstract: Since Ecuador's return to democracy in 1978, public policy has fluctuated between shifting management paradigms and the personalized nature of political decisions, undermining long-term planning. This chapter offers a historical analysis from 1978 to 2022, divided into four periods: "neglect," "consolidation," "centrality," and "pandemic." It examines how planning efforts have intersected with growing citizen, legal, and social pressures to prioritize human rights in public policy. Despite the increasing formal emphasis on human rights, they are often viewed as obstacles to development, sidelining minority populations. The chapter concludes that post-pandemic challenges and the ongoing crisis will reshape the state's role, introducing new challenges and influential veto players.

Keywords: Human Rights; Public Policy; Democratization; Intergenerational Perspective; Ecuador 

Abstract: In 1999, Venezuela underwent a transformation of its political institutions, following the approval of a new Constitution, which initiated a series of reforms that transformed social reality. In this chapter, we will analyze these changes, specifically in the higher education policy adopted to overcome social exclusion through the reform of the university system started in 2004. This research is based on an unprecedented experience in Latin America, which after several changes in the political, social and economic scenario, has seen how this educational policy, which had significant progress, has been interrupted, clearly affecting the quality of education and putting at risk the most vulnerable sectors of society.

Keywords: public policies; higher education policy; social missions; social exclusion; social transformation; Venezuela 

Abstract: The public policy approach has become a key tool for addressing development challenges in the Dominican Republic. Since the early 2000s, strategic planning grounded in inclusive public policy emerged from legal and institutional reforms, culminating in the 2012 National Development Strategy and alignment with the SDGs and the 2030 Agenda. This shift has driven the reform and modernization of government institutions, emphasizing methods like the Multi-year Public Sector Plan, operational plans, and robust monitoring and evaluation systems. Both academia and civil society are involved in this process. However, significant challenges remain, including institutional strengthening, effective coordination, territorial policy implementation, professionalization, administrative corruption, data reliability, and the need for strong political and managerial leadership.

Keywords: public policies; national development strategy; cross-cutting policies; evaluation; reform and modernization; Dominican Republic 

Abstract: This concluding chapter seeks to identify and put together what we define as the five challenges to develop and consolidate the public policy field in Latin America. With some reflections regarding current scenarios and their context limitations, identify some promising venues for advancement. This chapter identifies ten key dimensions for understanding the specificities of the policy process in Latin American countries. Also recover concluding remarks from several analytical chapters of this handbook. Based on the lasswellian legacy regarding the advancement of human dignity and democracy, the main objective is to suggest to move forward regionally, in a coordinated manner, towards the construction of a more robust, strategic and transformative field for Latin America; a more relevant and active field of knowledge within a larger international academic concert, and a professional field of action with more positive impacts on people's lives.

keywords: Public policy; policy studies; policy sciences; theory development; public governance; Latin America